They were the only Native Americans ever executed for war crimes in America – the Modoc War aftermath

Kintpuash’s Five-Month Siege at Lava Beds Stronghold

In 1872, a Modoc leader named Kintpuash stood up to the U. S. Army with just 53 warriors. The Army struck first, raiding his camp at Lost River and forcing the Modocs to flee to a natural fortress in the lava beds.

From this stronghold, they held off more than 1,000 troops for five months.

As talks broke down, Kintpuash shot General Canby in the face during peace talks, killing the highest-ranking officer of the Indian Wars. The small band killed 83 soldiers while losing only 17 of their own.

Yet the war ended badly for them. Kintpuash was hanged as a war criminal, and his people were sent to Oklahoma.

The rugged landscape of Lava Beds National Monument still holds the stone fortifications where this bold stand took place.

The Treaty That Pushed Kintpuash to Breaking Point

The 1864 treaty forced Modocs to live on the Klamath Reservation with their old enemies. Life there got worse as fights between the tribes grew daily.

Tired of bad conditions, Kintpuash (called Captain Jack by settlers) took his people back to Lost River in April 1870. They found settlers had taken their lands.

Kintpuash tried to make peace by renting land and working jobs in Yreka, California. The government ignored his requests for a small reservation on their home lands.

Bullets Flew When Army Troops Surrounded a Sleeping Camp

Captain James Jackson showed up with 40 soldiers at dawn on November 29, 1872. They circled Kintpuash’s camp while families still slept.

Jackson told the Modocs to hand over their weapons and return to the reservation. Kintpuash agreed to avoid bloodshed.

Then Scarfaced Charley got into a fight with an Army sergeant. Both men pulled guns and fired.

A short, fierce battle broke out. One soldier died and seven got hurt.

Two Modocs died and three suffered wounds. The Modocs ran toward California as Jackson’s troops pulled back for more men.

Settler Killings Made Peace Almost Impossible

Hooker Jim’s band killed 18 settlers on November 29-30 as they ran toward the Lava Beds. Kintpuash learned about these murders when Hooker Jim reached the stronghold.

The killings turned public opinion against all Modocs and blocked any peaceful fix. The scattered Modoc bands came together at their safe place in the Lava Beds.

This natural fortress of twisted lava rock gave them a strong spot to hide and defend against the growing number of troops coming after them.

Lava Beds Became a Natural Fortress for Desperate Defenders

About 150 Modoc people with just 53 warriors set up defense spots in the jagged lava flows. The Lava Beds created a maze of trenches, caves, and rocky outcrops that gave them great protection.

Modocs knew this area as the “Land of Burnt-Out Fires” while soldiers called it “hell with fires gone out. ” Their spot let them control access to Tule Lake for water.

The Army gathered more troops while the Modocs turned their natural castle into an even stronger fortress.

Fog and Confusion Led to Army’s Worst Defeat

Over 300 Army troops attacked the stronghold at dawn on January 17, 1873. A thick fog covered the battlefield so badly soldiers could barely see ahead.

The confused troops called to each other, telling hidden Modoc shooters exactly where to aim. The Army suffered 35 casualties but not a single Modoc got hurt.

This loss forced the Army to ask for more troops and make a new plan. The government realized they needed a different approach after such a one-sided battle.

Peace Talks Started While Troops Kept Coming

Commissioner Columbus Delano formed a team to talk peace and avoid more military failures. General Edward Canby led the peace group with several civilians.

Winema, Kintpuash’s cousin, and her husband Frank Riddle worked as translators and go-betweens. Kintpuash hoped for a peaceful fix that would let his people stay in their homeland.

The Army kept bringing in forces during the talks, which went on for months with no progress. Both sides grew tired as neither would budge on where the Modocs could live.

Kintpuash Faced Pressure From All Sides

Kintpuash asked many times for a small reservation on just six square miles of lava land. The government turned down every Modoc request for a separate homeland.

Oregon officials wanted to hang the Modocs who killed settlers during their escape. Some moderate Modocs wanted to give up while others like Hooker Jim pushed for more fighting.

Kintpuash tried to keep his people united as stress grew. His leadership weakened as food ran low and more Army troops gathered around their stronghold.

Warriors Voted to Kill the Peace Commissioners

The Modoc warriors voted about killing the peace team at their next meeting. Kintpuash spoke against this plan but found himself outvoted.

Only 11 of 51 warriors backed his call for more talks. Trying to keep his group together, Kintpuash gave in to the majority.

They set up an April 11 meeting where both sides agreed to come without weapons.

Winema heard about the plot and warned the commissioners, but General Canby brushed off her concerns. He thought his military presence would keep things safe.

Good Friday Turned Deadly at the Peace Tent

The April 11, 1873 meeting started with Kintpuash demanding the Army leave the area. General Canby refused to give the Modocs their own reservation.

With warriors watching his every move, Kintpuash pulled out a hidden gun and shot Canby in the face. Other Modocs killed Reverend Eleazar Thomas while the remaining commissioners ran for their lives.

Canby became the highest-ranking military officer killed in all the Indian Wars. The murders ended any chance of peace and brought the full power of the U.S. Army down on the Modocs.

Hunger and Betrayal Ended the Resistance

A massive force of nearly 1,000 troops surrounded the Lava Beds after the killings. They cut the Modocs off from Tule Lake, their main water source.

Starving and thirsty, the Modocs left their stronghold at night. The once-united band split up as hunger and tiredness took over.

Various groups began giving up separately as their situation grew worse. Hooker Jim betrayed Kintpuash by telling the Army where to find him in exchange for freedom.

Soldiers caught Kintpuash on June 1, 1873, with only his family still by his side.

The Only Native Americans Ever Convicted as War Criminals

A military court at Fort Klamath put six Modoc leaders on trial for murder.

Kintpuash and three others got death sentences, while President Grant changed two sentences to life imprisonment. Nearly 2,000 people came to watch the hanging on October 3, 1873.

The executed Modocs became the only Native Americans ever convicted as war criminals in U. S. history. The Army sent the surviving Modocs to exile on an Oklahoma reservation far from their homeland.

The war cost the government over $400,000 and resulted in 83 white deaths compared to only 17 Modoc casualties.

Visiting Lava Beds National Monument in California

You can explore the battleground where Captain Jack led 53 Modoc warriors against over 1,000 U. S. Army troops during the 1872-1873 Modoc War at Lava Beds National Monument.

The park costs $25 per vehicle for seven days and has self-guided trails through the original fortifications at Captain Jack’s Stronghold.

Pick up a historical guidebook at the visitor center, which is open 10am-4pm daily. You’ll need free cave permits from the entrance station.

This article was created with AI assistance and human editing.

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