The Plains Indian treaty that Congress secretly gutted before the ink was dry at Horse Creek

The Great Sioux Treaty Councils of 1851 and 1868

In 1851, over 10,000 Plains Indians gathered at Horse Creek for what seemed like a fair deal with the U. S. government. Congress had other plans.

They secretly cut the promised fifty years of payments to just ten, then broke nearly every other promise in the treaty. When Red Cloud’s warriors forced new talks in 1868, they won big. But gold in the Black Hills changed everything again.

Here’s the full story of broken promises that shaped the West, all preserved at Fort Laramie National Historic Site where you can walk the same grounds today.

Thousands of Native Americans Gathered at Horse Creek

The biggest Plains Indian meeting ever happened in September 1851 at Horse Creek, about 30 miles east of Fort Laramie. Between 10,000 and 15,000 Native Americans from nine different tribes came together.

They moved from Fort Laramie because their thousands of horses needed more grass. Enemy tribes kept their distance from each other, with U.S. officials working as peacemakers between camps.

Jesuit priest Pierre-Jean De Smet helped keep peace among the tribes during talks.

The Government Promised Money for Fifty Years

On September 17, 1851, U.S. officials and leaders from eight tribes including the Cheyenne, Sioux, Arapaho, and Crow signed the Horse Creek Treaty. The U.S. government promised $50,000 yearly for fifty years if tribes let settlers travel safely on the Oregon Trail.

The treaty gave the Black Hills only to the Lakota Sioux, making the Cheyenne and Arapaho upset since they also claimed this land. The agreement also set clear borders for each tribe to stop fighting between them.

Congress Cut the Deal Short in Secret

Without telling tribal leaders, Congress cut the payment period from fifty years to just ten years before approving the treaty. They should have sent the changed treaty back to the tribes for approval, but never did.

Native American leaders thought treaty negotiators had the final say in making deals. They didn’t know Congress needed to approve treaties.

This sneaky change started a pattern of treaty breaking that continued for years.

Broken Promises Started Right Away

The U.S. government made only one of the promised payments to the tribes. The federal government simply didn’t have enough resources to keep white settlers off tribal lands.

The U.S. Army failed to enforce the rules in the treaty, letting buffalo hunters trespass on Native lands.

Things got worse after the 1854 Grattan Affair, when Lieutenant John Grattan and his men illegally entered a Sioux camp near Fort Laramie, leading to a fight that killed Grattan and 29 soldiers.

Montana Gold Rush Created New Problems

Gold found in Montana in 1863 created a rush that led to the Bozeman Trail, which cut through the best Sioux hunting grounds.

About 3,500 miners and settlers traveled this trail between 1864 and 1866, competing with Native Americans for food. The trail clearly broke the 1851 treaty boundaries, and the U.S. government never asked the tribes for permission.

The U. . Army launched the 1865 Powder River Expedition to stop Native resistance to the trail, but the campaign failed.

Red Cloud Fought Against Army Invasion

When the U. S. sent 700 troops under Colonel Henry Carrington into the Powder River Basin in 1866, Oglala Lakota leader Red Cloud refused to sign any new treaty.

Instead, he united the Oglala Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Northern Arapaho to fight the invaders. Carrington built Fort Phil Kearny and renamed Fort Connor as Fort Reno to protect the trail.

Red Cloud organized effective guerrilla warfare that kept U. S. forces stuck in their forts and made travel on the Bozeman Trail very dangerous.

Warriors Defeated the U.S. Military

The Fetterman Massacre on December 21, 1866, left 81 soldiers dead after Captain William Fetterman ignored orders not to chase Native warriors beyond Lodge Trail Ridge.

The August 1867 Hayfield Fight and Wagon Box Fight showed that Native forces controlled the region.

Red Cloud’s warriors mastered the art of attacking without warning, striking hard, and disappearing before help could arrive. These military losses forced the U.S. government to admit that fighting wasn’t working and that talking might be the only way forward.

Lakota Warriors Made the Army Leave

Peace officials arrived at Fort Laramie in spring 1868, but Red Cloud refused to meet until the U.S. abandoned its forts along the Bozeman Trail. In August 1868, federal soldiers finally left Forts Phil Kearny, C.F. Smith, and Reno.

The very next day, Native Americans burned all three empty forts to the ground, making sure no one could use them again.

The Bozeman Trail closed to white travelers, marking a rare military win for Native Americans against the U.S. government.

Red Cloud’s Smart Plan Won a Historic Treaty

Various bands signed the 1868 treaty between April and November, but Red Cloud waited until the forts were completely gone before signing.

On November 6, 1868, Red Cloud became the last to sign, marking what historians call “the high point for Sioux tribal power in the Great Plains.”

The treaty created the Great Sioux Reservation, which included the Black Hills as “unceded Indian territory. ” The agreement required approval from 75 percent of adult male tribal members for any future land sales.

Custer’s Gold Reports Ruined the Treaty

Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer led a trip into the Black Hills in July 1874, breaking the 1868 treaty. His reports of gold findings brought a flood of fortune seekers.

Within just one year, more than 1,000 miners had entered the Black Hills territory against the treaty rules. In 1876, U.S. officials got signatures from only 10 percent of adult male Sioux for a new “agreement” giving up the Black Hills, far below the required 75 percent.

Congress passed a law in 1877 using this fake agreement to take the Black Hills from the Sioux.

Modern Sioux Reject Money in Fight for Sacred Land

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1980 in United States v. Sioux Nation that Congress had acted in bad faith when taking the Black Hills.

The Court awarded $102 million in compensation, which has grown to over $1. 3 billion with interest.

The Sioux tribes have consistently refused to accept this money, maintaining that “the land was never for sale” and demanding the return of their sacred territory.

Tribal leaders know that accepting the money would legally terminate all claims to the Black Hills, which they consider the spiritual center of their universe and not something that can be bought or sold.

Visiting Fort Laramie National Historic Site

Fort Laramie National Historic Site is free to visit and gives you a close look at where the famous Sioux Treaties were signed and later broken. The visitor center at 965 Gray Rocks Road shows an 18-minute history video when you ask.

You can explore 12 restored buildings including the trading post where negotiations happened, cavalry barracks, and officers’ quarters. Rent an audio tour for a small fee to learn more as you walk around.

Hours vary by season: 8am-6pm in summer, 8am-5pm spring/fall, and 8am-4pm in winter.

This article was created with AI assistance and human editing.

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